Future orthopaedics: role of stem cells
Keywords:
Future orthopaedics, foetal stem cells (FSCs), embryonic stem cells (ESCs)
Abstract
Today great hope is set on regenerative medicine in all medical fields. Leland Kaiser introduced the term "Regenerative medicine" in 1992. He forecasted that "a new branch of medicine will develop that attempts to change the course of chronic diseases and in many instances will regenerate tired and failing organ systems"1 Since then, scientists all over the world try to develop cell-based approaches to regenerate damaged tissues, or even substitute whole organs2. Of course, regenerative medicine has developed to be of interest in orthopaedics. There, great hope was set on regenerative medicine to develop alternative therapies for cartilage damage, arthritis, large bone defects, or atrophic tendon ruptures during the last decade. These are all indications, which are treatable only insufficiently with conventional implants and surgical procedures3-10. Therefore, they frequently result in decreased function of the musculoskeletal system or even loss of patients' mobility. In the worst case, the mentioned diseases even result in a loss of autonomy for the patient. In the field of Orthopaedics, autologous stem cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are readily available and are amenable to harvesting and isolation from the bone marrow and other tissues of mesodermal origin. MSCs are already pre-programmed to differentiate into musculoskeletal tissue types. But Despite rapid progress, significant challenges remain in the translation of these stem cell therapies for clinical applications. In this review, a brief description of stem cells is provided, and the current status of stem cells in orthopaedic practice is discussed.
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References
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S. Ehnert, M. Glanemann, A. Schmitt et al. , "The
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F. Forriol, U. G. Longo, C. Concejo, P. Ripalda, N. Maffulli, and V. Denaro, "Platelet-rich plasma, rhOP-1 (rhBMP-7) and frozen rib allograft for the reconstruction of bony mandibular defects in sheep. A pilot experimental study, " Injury, vol. 40, supplement 3, pp. S44-49, 2009.
U. G. Longo, A. Lamberti, W. S. Khan, N. Maffulli, and V. Denaro, "Synthetic augmentation for massive rotator cuff tears, " Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 360-365, 2011.
A. Kokkonen, M. Ikävalko, R. Tiihonen, H. Kautiainen, and E. A. Belt, "High rate of osteolytic lesions in medium-term followup after the AES total ankle replacement, " Foot and Ankle International, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 168-175, 2011.
P. Pelissier, P. Boireau, D. Martin, and J. Baudet, "Bone reconstruction of the lower extremity: complications and outcomes, " Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, vol. 111, no. 7, pp. 22232229, 2003.
J. N. Gladstone, J. Y. Bishop, I. K. Y. Lo, and E. L. Flatow, "Fatty infiltration and atrophy of the rotator cuff do not improve after rotator cuff repair and correlate with poor functional outcome, " American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 719728, 2007.
U. G. Longo, A. Berton, S. Alexander, N. Maffulli, A. L. Wallace, and V. Denaro, "Biological resurfacing for early osteoarthritis of the shoulder, " Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 380-394, 2011.
R. Castricini, U. G. Longo, M. De Benedetto et al. , "Platelet-rich plasma augmentation for arthroscopic rotator cuff repair: a randomized controlled trial, " American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 258-265, 2011.
N. Maffulli, U. G. Longo, and V. Denaro, "Novel approaches for the management of tendinopathy, "Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 92, no. 15, pp. 2604-2613, 2010.
Fuchs E, Tumbar T, Guasch G. Socializing with the neighbors: stem cells and their niche. Cell. 2004; 116:769-78. [PubMed: 15035980]
Moore KA, Lemischka IR. Stem cells and their niches. Science. 2006; 311:1880-5. [PubMed: 16574858]
Scadden DT. The stem-cell niche as an entity of action. Nature. 2006; 441:1075- 9 [PubMed:16810242]
Fung YC. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2004. Biomechanics: Mechanical properties of living tissues.
Engler AJ, Sen S, Sweeney HL, Discher DE. Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification. Cell. 2006; 126:677-89. [PubMed: 16923388]
Reilly GC, Engler AJ. Intrinsic extracellular matrix properties regulate stem cell differentiation. J Biomech. 2010; 43:55-62. [PubMed: 19800626]
Kim EJ, Boehm CA, Fleischman AJ, Muschler GF , Kostov YV, Roy S. Modulating human connective tissue progenitor cell behavior on cellulose acetate scaffolds by surface microtextures. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2009;90: 1198-205. [PMCID: PMC3999961] [PubMed: 18680188]
Keung AJ, Healy KE, Kumar S, Schaffer DV . Biophysics and dynamics of natural and engineered stem cell microenvironments. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. 2010; 2:49-64. [PubMed: 20836010]
Takahashi K, Yamanaka, S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 2006. 126: 663-76.
R. Mafi, et al. , "Sources of adult mesenchymal stem cells applicable for musculoskeletal applications-a systematic review of the literature, " Open Orthopaedics Journal, vol. 5, supplement 2, pp. 242248, 2011.
C. D. Porada and G. Almeida-Porada, "Mesenchymal stem cells as therapeutics and vehicles for gene and drug delivery, " Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 1156-1166, 2010.
Friedenstein AJ, Chailakhyan RK, Latsinik NV , Panasyuk AF, Keiliss-Borok IV. Stromal cells responsible for transferring the microenvironment of the hemopoietic tissues. Cloning in vitro and retransplantation in vivo. Transplantation. 1974;17:331-40. [PubMed: 4150881]
Friedenstein AJ. Stromal mechanisms of bone marrow: Cloning in vitro and retransplantation in vivo. Haematol Blood Transfus. 1980; 25:19-29. [PubMed: 7021339]
Bianco P, Riminucci M. The bone marrow stroma in vivo: ontogeny, structure, cellular composition and changes in disease. In: Beresford JN, Cambridge ME, eds. Marrow stromal cell culture: handbooks in practical animal cell biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998:10-25.
Pittenger MF, Flake AM, Deans RJ. Stem cell culture: mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow. In: Atala
A, Lanza RP, eds. Methods of tissue engineering. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002:461-9.
Buckwalter JA, Mankin HJ. Articular cartilage: degeneration and osteoarthritis, repair, regeneration and transplantation. Instr Course Lect 1998; 47:487504.
Wakitani S, Nawata M, Tensho K, Okabe T, Machida H, Ohgushi H. Repair of articular cartilage defects in the patello-femoral joint with autologous bone marrow mesenchymal cell transplantation: three case reports involving nine defects in five knees. J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2007 Jan-Feb;1(1):74-9.
Nejadnik H, Hui JH, Feng Choong EP, Tai BC, Lee EH. Autologous bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells versus autologous chondrocyte implantation: an observational cohort study. Am J Sports Med. 2010 Jun; 38(6): 1110-6.
Buda R, Vannini F, Cavallo M, Grigolo B, Cenacchi A, Giannini S. Osteochondral lesions of the knee: a new one-step repair technique with bone-marrow-derived cells. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010 Dec;92 Suppl 2:211.
Simion M, Fontana F. Autogenous and xenogeneic bone grafts for the bone regeneration. A literature review. Minerva Stomatol 2004; 53(5): 191-206.
Bensaid W, Triffitt JT, Blanchat C, Oudina K, Sedel L and Petite H. A biodegradable fibrin scaffold for mesenchymal stem cell transplantation. Biomaterials 2003; 24(14): 2497-502.
Park DJ, Choi BH, Zhu SJ, Huh JY, Kim BY, Lee SH. Injectable bone using chitosan-alginate gel/ mesenchymal stem cells/BMP- 2 composites. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2005; 33(1): 50-4.
Bright RW. Operative correction of partial epiphyseal plate closure by osseousbridge resection and siliconerubber implant: an experimental study in dogs. J Bone Joint Surg 1974; 56-A: 655-64.
Martiana K, Low CK, Tan SK, Pang MW. Comparison of various interpositional materials in the prevention of transphyseal bone bridge formation. Clin Orthop 1996; 325: 218-24.
Foster BK, Hansen AL, Gibson GJ, Hopwood JJ, Binns GF, Wiebkin OW. Reimplantation of growth plate chondrocytes into growth plate defects in sheep. J Orthop Res 1990; 8: 555-64.
Lee EH, Chen F, Chan J, Bose K. Treatment of growth arrest by transfer of cultured chondrocytes into physeal defects. J Pediatr Orthop 1998; 18: 15560.
Tobita M, Ochi M, Uchio Y, Mori R, Iwasa J, Katsube K, et al. Treatment of growth plate injury with autogenous chondrocytes: a study in rabbits. Acta Orthop Scand 2002; 73: 352-8.
Chen F, Hui JH, Chan WK, Lee EH. Cultured mesenchymal stem cell transfers in the treatment of partial growth arrest. J Pediatr Orthop 2003; 23: 4259.
Ahn JI, Terry Canale S, Butler SD, Hasty KA. Stem cell repair of physeal cartilage. J Orthop Res 2004; 22: 1215 21.
Lee EH, Hui JH. The potential of stem cells in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 2006; 88(7): 841-51.
Pereira RF, O'Hara MD, Laptev AV, Halford KW, Pollard MD, Class R, Simon D, Livezey K, Prockop DJ. Marrow stromal cells as a source of progenitor cells for nonhematopoietic tissues in transgenic mice with a phenotype of osteogenesis imperfecta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:1142-7.
Horwitz EM, Prockop DJ, Fitzpatrick LA, Koo WW, Gordon PL, Neel M, et al. Transplantability and therapeutic effects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal cells in children with osteogenesis imperfecta. Nat Med 1999; 5: 309-13
Bruder SP, Fink DJ, Caplan AI. Mesenchymal stem cells in bone development, bone repair, and skeletal regeneration therapy. J Cell Biochem. 1994 Nov; 56(3):283-94.
Connolly JF, Guse R, Tiedeman J, Dehne R. Autologous marrow injection as a substitute for operative grafting of tibial nonunions. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1991 May; 266:259-70.
Garg NK, Gaur S, Sharma S. Percutaneous autogenous bone marrow grafting in 20 cases of ununited fracture. Acta Orthop Scand. 1993 Dec; 64(6):671-2.
Goel A, Sangwan SS, Siwach RC, Ali AM. Percutaneous bone marrow grafting for the treatment of tibial non-union. Injury. 2005 Jan;36(1):203-6.
Fernandez-Bances I, Perez-Basterrechea M, PerezLopez S, Nuñez Batalla D, Fernandez Rodriguez MA, Alvarez-Viejo M, et al. Repair of long-bone pseudoarthrosis with autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells combined with allogenic bone graft. Cytotherapy. 2013 May; 15(5):571-7.
Hyman J, Rodeo SA. Injury and repair of tendons and ligaments. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2000; 11:267-88.
Fu FH, Bennett CH, Lattermann C, Ma CB. Current trends in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Part 1: biology and biomechanics of reconstruction. Am J Sports Med 1999;27:821-30.
Lim JK, Hui J, Li L, et al. Enhancement of tendon graft osteointegration using mesenchymal stem cells in a rabbit model of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy 2004;20:899-910.
Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D. Increased knee cartilage volume in degenerative joint disease using percutaneously implanted, autologous mesenchymal stem cells. Pain Physician 2008; 11(3): 343-53.
Sen RK. Management of avascular necrosis of femoral head at pre-collapse stage. Indian J Orthop. 2009 Jan;43(1): 6-16.
Wang T, Wang W, Yin ZS. Treatment of osteonecrosis of the femoral head with thorough debridement, bone grafting and bone-marrow mononuclear cells implantation. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2013 Jan.
Marcacci M, Kon E, Moukhachev V, Lavroukov A, Kutepov S, Quarto R, et al. Stem cells associated with macroporous bioceramics for long bone repair: 6- to 7-year outcome of a pilot clinical study. Tissue Eng. 2007 May;13(5):947-55.
Wakitani S, Goto T, Pineda SJ, et al. Mesenchymal cell-based repair of large, full thickness defects of articular cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1994;76A:579-92
Gussoni E, Soneoka Y, Strickland CD, et al. Dystrophin expression in the MDX mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 1999; 401:390-4.
Wakitani S, Saito T, Caplan AI. Myogenic cells derived from rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells exposed to 5-azacytidine. Muscle Nerve 1995; 18:1417-26.
Crevensten G, Walsh AJ, Ananthakrishnan D, et al. Intervertebral disc cell therapy for regeneration: mesenchymal stem cell implantation in rat intervertebral discs. Ann Biomed Eng 2004; 32:4304.
Lee EH, Hui JH. The potential of stem cells in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 2006; 88(7): 841-51.
Akiyama Y, Radtke C, Honmou O, Kocsis JD. Remyelination of the spinal cord following intravenous delivery of bone marrow cells. Glia. 2002; 39: 229-36.
S. Ehnert, M. Glanemann, A. Schmitt et al. , "The
possible use of stem cells in regenerative medicine: dream or reality?" Langenbeck's Archives of Surgery, vol. 394, no. 6, pp. 985-997, 2009.
F. Forriol, U. G. Longo, C. Concejo, P. Ripalda, N. Maffulli, and V. Denaro, "Platelet-rich plasma, rhOP-1 (rhBMP-7) and frozen rib allograft for the reconstruction of bony mandibular defects in sheep. A pilot experimental study, " Injury, vol. 40, supplement 3, pp. S44-49, 2009.
U. G. Longo, A. Lamberti, W. S. Khan, N. Maffulli, and V. Denaro, "Synthetic augmentation for massive rotator cuff tears, " Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 360-365, 2011.
A. Kokkonen, M. Ikävalko, R. Tiihonen, H. Kautiainen, and E. A. Belt, "High rate of osteolytic lesions in medium-term followup after the AES total ankle replacement, " Foot and Ankle International, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 168-175, 2011.
P. Pelissier, P. Boireau, D. Martin, and J. Baudet, "Bone reconstruction of the lower extremity: complications and outcomes, " Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, vol. 111, no. 7, pp. 22232229, 2003.
J. N. Gladstone, J. Y. Bishop, I. K. Y. Lo, and E. L. Flatow, "Fatty infiltration and atrophy of the rotator cuff do not improve after rotator cuff repair and correlate with poor functional outcome, " American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 719728, 2007.
U. G. Longo, A. Berton, S. Alexander, N. Maffulli, A. L. Wallace, and V. Denaro, "Biological resurfacing for early osteoarthritis of the shoulder, " Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 380-394, 2011.
R. Castricini, U. G. Longo, M. De Benedetto et al. , "Platelet-rich plasma augmentation for arthroscopic rotator cuff repair: a randomized controlled trial, " American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 258-265, 2011.
N. Maffulli, U. G. Longo, and V. Denaro, "Novel approaches for the management of tendinopathy, "Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 92, no. 15, pp. 2604-2613, 2010.
Fuchs E, Tumbar T, Guasch G. Socializing with the neighbors: stem cells and their niche. Cell. 2004; 116:769-78. [PubMed: 15035980]
Moore KA, Lemischka IR. Stem cells and their niches. Science. 2006; 311:1880-5. [PubMed: 16574858]
Scadden DT. The stem-cell niche as an entity of action. Nature. 2006; 441:1075- 9 [PubMed:16810242]
Fung YC. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2004. Biomechanics: Mechanical properties of living tissues.
Engler AJ, Sen S, Sweeney HL, Discher DE. Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification. Cell. 2006; 126:677-89. [PubMed: 16923388]
Reilly GC, Engler AJ. Intrinsic extracellular matrix properties regulate stem cell differentiation. J Biomech. 2010; 43:55-62. [PubMed: 19800626]
Kim EJ, Boehm CA, Fleischman AJ, Muschler GF , Kostov YV, Roy S. Modulating human connective tissue progenitor cell behavior on cellulose acetate scaffolds by surface microtextures. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2009;90: 1198-205. [PMCID: PMC3999961] [PubMed: 18680188]
Keung AJ, Healy KE, Kumar S, Schaffer DV . Biophysics and dynamics of natural and engineered stem cell microenvironments. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. 2010; 2:49-64. [PubMed: 20836010]
Takahashi K, Yamanaka, S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 2006. 126: 663-76.
R. Mafi, et al. , "Sources of adult mesenchymal stem cells applicable for musculoskeletal applications-a systematic review of the literature, " Open Orthopaedics Journal, vol. 5, supplement 2, pp. 242248, 2011.
C. D. Porada and G. Almeida-Porada, "Mesenchymal stem cells as therapeutics and vehicles for gene and drug delivery, " Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 1156-1166, 2010.
Friedenstein AJ, Chailakhyan RK, Latsinik NV , Panasyuk AF, Keiliss-Borok IV. Stromal cells responsible for transferring the microenvironment of the hemopoietic tissues. Cloning in vitro and retransplantation in vivo. Transplantation. 1974;17:331-40. [PubMed: 4150881]
Friedenstein AJ. Stromal mechanisms of bone marrow: Cloning in vitro and retransplantation in vivo. Haematol Blood Transfus. 1980; 25:19-29. [PubMed: 7021339]
Bianco P, Riminucci M. The bone marrow stroma in vivo: ontogeny, structure, cellular composition and changes in disease. In: Beresford JN, Cambridge ME, eds. Marrow stromal cell culture: handbooks in practical animal cell biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998:10-25.
Pittenger MF, Flake AM, Deans RJ. Stem cell culture: mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow. In: Atala
A, Lanza RP, eds. Methods of tissue engineering. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002:461-9.
Buckwalter JA, Mankin HJ. Articular cartilage: degeneration and osteoarthritis, repair, regeneration and transplantation. Instr Course Lect 1998; 47:487504.
Wakitani S, Nawata M, Tensho K, Okabe T, Machida H, Ohgushi H. Repair of articular cartilage defects in the patello-femoral joint with autologous bone marrow mesenchymal cell transplantation: three case reports involving nine defects in five knees. J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2007 Jan-Feb;1(1):74-9.
Nejadnik H, Hui JH, Feng Choong EP, Tai BC, Lee EH. Autologous bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells versus autologous chondrocyte implantation: an observational cohort study. Am J Sports Med. 2010 Jun; 38(6): 1110-6.
Buda R, Vannini F, Cavallo M, Grigolo B, Cenacchi A, Giannini S. Osteochondral lesions of the knee: a new one-step repair technique with bone-marrow-derived cells. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010 Dec;92 Suppl 2:211.
Simion M, Fontana F. Autogenous and xenogeneic bone grafts for the bone regeneration. A literature review. Minerva Stomatol 2004; 53(5): 191-206.
Bensaid W, Triffitt JT, Blanchat C, Oudina K, Sedel L and Petite H. A biodegradable fibrin scaffold for mesenchymal stem cell transplantation. Biomaterials 2003; 24(14): 2497-502.
Park DJ, Choi BH, Zhu SJ, Huh JY, Kim BY, Lee SH. Injectable bone using chitosan-alginate gel/ mesenchymal stem cells/BMP- 2 composites. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2005; 33(1): 50-4.
Bright RW. Operative correction of partial epiphyseal plate closure by osseousbridge resection and siliconerubber implant: an experimental study in dogs. J Bone Joint Surg 1974; 56-A: 655-64.
Martiana K, Low CK, Tan SK, Pang MW. Comparison of various interpositional materials in the prevention of transphyseal bone bridge formation. Clin Orthop 1996; 325: 218-24.
Foster BK, Hansen AL, Gibson GJ, Hopwood JJ, Binns GF, Wiebkin OW. Reimplantation of growth plate chondrocytes into growth plate defects in sheep. J Orthop Res 1990; 8: 555-64.
Lee EH, Chen F, Chan J, Bose K. Treatment of growth arrest by transfer of cultured chondrocytes into physeal defects. J Pediatr Orthop 1998; 18: 15560.
Tobita M, Ochi M, Uchio Y, Mori R, Iwasa J, Katsube K, et al. Treatment of growth plate injury with autogenous chondrocytes: a study in rabbits. Acta Orthop Scand 2002; 73: 352-8.
Chen F, Hui JH, Chan WK, Lee EH. Cultured mesenchymal stem cell transfers in the treatment of partial growth arrest. J Pediatr Orthop 2003; 23: 4259.
Ahn JI, Terry Canale S, Butler SD, Hasty KA. Stem cell repair of physeal cartilage. J Orthop Res 2004; 22: 1215 21.
Lee EH, Hui JH. The potential of stem cells in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 2006; 88(7): 841-51.
Pereira RF, O'Hara MD, Laptev AV, Halford KW, Pollard MD, Class R, Simon D, Livezey K, Prockop DJ. Marrow stromal cells as a source of progenitor cells for nonhematopoietic tissues in transgenic mice with a phenotype of osteogenesis imperfecta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:1142-7.
Horwitz EM, Prockop DJ, Fitzpatrick LA, Koo WW, Gordon PL, Neel M, et al. Transplantability and therapeutic effects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal cells in children with osteogenesis imperfecta. Nat Med 1999; 5: 309-13
Bruder SP, Fink DJ, Caplan AI. Mesenchymal stem cells in bone development, bone repair, and skeletal regeneration therapy. J Cell Biochem. 1994 Nov; 56(3):283-94.
Connolly JF, Guse R, Tiedeman J, Dehne R. Autologous marrow injection as a substitute for operative grafting of tibial nonunions. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1991 May; 266:259-70.
Garg NK, Gaur S, Sharma S. Percutaneous autogenous bone marrow grafting in 20 cases of ununited fracture. Acta Orthop Scand. 1993 Dec; 64(6):671-2.
Goel A, Sangwan SS, Siwach RC, Ali AM. Percutaneous bone marrow grafting for the treatment of tibial non-union. Injury. 2005 Jan;36(1):203-6.
Fernandez-Bances I, Perez-Basterrechea M, PerezLopez S, Nuñez Batalla D, Fernandez Rodriguez MA, Alvarez-Viejo M, et al. Repair of long-bone pseudoarthrosis with autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells combined with allogenic bone graft. Cytotherapy. 2013 May; 15(5):571-7.
Hyman J, Rodeo SA. Injury and repair of tendons and ligaments. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2000; 11:267-88.
Fu FH, Bennett CH, Lattermann C, Ma CB. Current trends in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Part 1: biology and biomechanics of reconstruction. Am J Sports Med 1999;27:821-30.
Lim JK, Hui J, Li L, et al. Enhancement of tendon graft osteointegration using mesenchymal stem cells in a rabbit model of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy 2004;20:899-910.
Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D. Increased knee cartilage volume in degenerative joint disease using percutaneously implanted, autologous mesenchymal stem cells. Pain Physician 2008; 11(3): 343-53.
Sen RK. Management of avascular necrosis of femoral head at pre-collapse stage. Indian J Orthop. 2009 Jan;43(1): 6-16.
Wang T, Wang W, Yin ZS. Treatment of osteonecrosis of the femoral head with thorough debridement, bone grafting and bone-marrow mononuclear cells implantation. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2013 Jan.
Marcacci M, Kon E, Moukhachev V, Lavroukov A, Kutepov S, Quarto R, et al. Stem cells associated with macroporous bioceramics for long bone repair: 6- to 7-year outcome of a pilot clinical study. Tissue Eng. 2007 May;13(5):947-55.
Wakitani S, Goto T, Pineda SJ, et al. Mesenchymal cell-based repair of large, full thickness defects of articular cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1994;76A:579-92
Gussoni E, Soneoka Y, Strickland CD, et al. Dystrophin expression in the MDX mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 1999; 401:390-4.
Wakitani S, Saito T, Caplan AI. Myogenic cells derived from rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells exposed to 5-azacytidine. Muscle Nerve 1995; 18:1417-26.
Crevensten G, Walsh AJ, Ananthakrishnan D, et al. Intervertebral disc cell therapy for regeneration: mesenchymal stem cell implantation in rat intervertebral discs. Ann Biomed Eng 2004; 32:4304.
Lee EH, Hui JH. The potential of stem cells in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 2006; 88(7): 841-51.
Akiyama Y, Radtke C, Honmou O, Kocsis JD. Remyelination of the spinal cord following intravenous delivery of bone marrow cells. Glia. 2002; 39: 229-36.
Published
2015-06-30
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Maravi D S, Singh V, Shukla J., Gaur S. Future orthopaedics: role of stem cells. ojmpc [Internet]. 2015Jun.30 [cited 2024Dec.21];21(1):15-3. Available from: https://ojmpc.com/index.php/ojmpc/article/view/5
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